Democracy and Dictatorship in Lord of the Flies :: essays research papers

William Golding said â€Å"I learned during World War II just how brutal people can be to each other. Not just the Japanese but everyone†. In the book â€Å"the Lord of the Flies†, Golding tells us about World War II and the Holocaust by making Ralph represent democracy and Jack represent dictatorship. In the beginning of the story the airplane that is going to take the boys to a safe place gets shot down and landed in an island. Ralph represents democracy, when he and Piggy find the conch, Piggy suggested â€Å"We can use this to call the others. We have a meeting. They’ll come if they hear us† (16). Ralph is being democratic because he is giving them a choice if they want to go or not. He is also fair because he is going to have a meeting to decide what they are going to do. When they get together they decide that they need to have a chief. Roger says â€Å"Let’s have a vote† â€Å"Him with the conch† â€Å"Ralph, Ralph, Ralph† (22). They started to notice that Ralph would be a good leader. They see in him what a chief needs to have, and the conch in his hands means power and authority. They all start talking at the same time and discussing about who has to be chief, the choir boys think that Jack should be the chief but the rest want Ra lph to be the chief. â€Å"I got the conch† said piggy indignantly â€Å"you let me speak† (42). Piggy gets the conch because represents power so the rest of the boys had to let him talk and show respect, Piggy was really intelligent so that helped Ralph be a better leader because he would listen to Piggy and choose what was right. William Golding says that Jack represents dictatorship. He wanted to be the chief but the rest chose Ralph â€Å"I cut the pig’s throat† (69) he said. He was the one that hunt the pigs but he needed to paint his face so the pig couldn’t see him but he was also trying to hide from himself. He wanted to be better than the other and made them think he was tough. Jack was selfish and arrogant. He says â€Å"who cares what you think fatty†. He didn’t care about the other’s needs and concerns. He thought that all he did and believed was right and nobody could beat him.

Banning communist party FINALRev

The communist party of Australia has a history that dates back to the early 1920. It was established in the face of rising Russian Communism revolution. An analysis of its events in its lifetime indicates that it was a great challenge to the Australian political order as it was growing from strength to strength in terms of its support. Liberal country party coalition was threatened by this emerging dominant ideology as fronted by the communism party. Robert Gordon Menzies was against this and went ahead to enforce a ban of the communist party, but was this right?(Ward, Russel, 1983 pg 131) Arguments have raged over the appropriateness of Menzies ban on the communist party. This paper maintains that this ban on the communist party was meant to suppress democracy and was against the basic underlying democratic fundamentals under which Australia was formed and also which the Liberal Country Party sought to further. It was also against individual rights as it was seeking to infringe on t he freedom of association. The banning of communist party was driven by ill based fear especially as a revolution driven by Russia was rife in the air.At the start of the world war two, the party had been banned in the pretext or in an unfounded belief that it was a dissident organization (Manne, Robert, 1994, pg 34,44). The federal government did this by invoking the National Security Regulations, however this ban was to be later lifted in December 1942. This was after the leadership established that the communist Russians had decided rally their support against fighting the Hitler’s Third Reich terming the new force as the Patriotic Forces.Towards the start of the war, the Comintern was against the involvement of Russia in the Second World War terming it as purely an imperialist’s affair. Australian communists had too earlier on spoken against the rising Nazism and Fascism, warning that these it was likely to spread to the rest of Europe. The lifting of the ban is an indicator that it was not on any justified cause but was as a result of the rising opposition to the government’s policies at home (Ann C. and John M. , 1984). The communist party was riding on a wave of simmering discontent and disillusionment of the Australian workers under the labor unions.The lifting of the ban in 1942 did it greater service as its popularity soared to a record height. The number of trade unions allied to communist party increased greatly. The communist movement was able to penetrate and infiltrate the major trade unions mostly in the face of rising communism in Eastern Europe. The communist party in Australia was enjoying some considerable support especially amongst the workers. This is seen in the way it was able to influence and instigate workers strike. The Chiley government in turn was using the military and arbitrary jailing of officials to crack the party.1949, in Australia, was a bad year for the labor government. The miner led a nation wide stri ke, a strike that lasted for seven weeks. This was a period that would put the government’s strength and will power into test. It was to retaliate through unwarranted emergency legislations, and establishing an â€Å"Anti Communist Month†. This scuffle would leave both the communist party and the labor party suffering debilitating effects in the face of a rising unpopularity that was being fuelled by Menzies Liberal Party. This was so especially as the 1949 federal elections drew closer.Right from the start, Menzies was set against communism in Australia. He considered the party as â€Å"alien† and â€Å"destructive pest†. In his campaign for elections, he vowed to prohibit it. Indeed that was the first deed upon his swearing in, having won the elections with a landslide (Peter L. & Paul S. , 2001, pg 66). Many argue that it was not the suppression of the communist party activity that did not endear him to many but it is the approach that he took. He embr aced undemocratic strategies and invoked some constitution provisions that would infringe upon the rights of the population.It has to be understood that Menzies policies against communism were a greater extent fuelled and influenced by the United States and Britain in the face of cold war. The three countries had been sharing classified information on the communism and on nuclear technology including the remote sites. Allegations that the communist party in Australia was spying for the USSR led to Menzies taking a hard stance and vowing to stamp out the party, referring to the act as a â€Å"high treason† (McKnight, David, 1994, pg112).The events that would ensue after this were highly undemocratic. Menzies took excess measures to curb any association, support or membership of the Communist Party. It is these measures that received a lot of criticism. Majority wanted prohibition to be specifically limited to membership and not based on some other ununderstandable criterion. H is worst headache however was how to ban a party that enjoyed considerable support from the trade unions. Impediments lay on his path as he tried to ban the party mostly as the common wealth constitution did not have such provisions.He had to plan carefully, cautious not to step on the toes of the powerful trade unions (Gollan, Robin, 1975, pg 145). Menzies was not enjoying much support from the industrial workers who saw him as impediment to their rights. His policies were likely to ignite an industrial instability. In banning the communist party, he used selective and isolationist policies. The communist officials were to be denied any job opportunities in the government offices but the trade union officials were not to be affected by this, even those publicly opposed to the federal government.Sifting the communist from the rest required the reversing of the fundamental principle of innocent until proven guilty. The legal burden of proof lay upon the individual accused of being a member of the communist party. This did not endear him to many and was seen as meant to lead to arbitrary detention in the pretext that a crime against the commonwealth was committed (Macintyre, Stuart, 1998 pg 20-23). A hate campaign was instituted against the communist in the bid by the federal government to instill a sense of fear into the masses and wane the communist party popularity.The bill introduced by the government referred to as the Australian Communist Party Dissolution Bill 1950, was meant to outlaw completely the communist party. The provisions in the bill were unreasonably harsh and a clear infringement of the citizens rights. Supporters were to be jailed and those suspected to be communists sacked from their jobs. This was in the midst of concerted and vehement opposition from the Australian Labor Party led by Ben Chifley. According to him, freedom and individual justice were at stake if the bill was to be passed.Others were also emphasizing similar views. The high court ruled to the disfavor of the Menzies administration and his mechanizations did not make headway. The 1951 referendum held on 22nd September landed Menzies a slight defeat, however, still in the face of this defeat, the government did not give up the fight against communism. (Rupert Lockwood, 1992 pg 149) It is important to indicate that opposition is not on the decision to fight the Communist Party perse but it is against the strategy that he used.It is agreeable that the ideal of communism in the face of cold war were a threat to the stability of Australia. However the methods used to fight it are not condonable. The public voted against the government as there was fear that individual right and freedoms were to be trampled on had the act been enacted. The strategies used by Menzies were undemocratic and were seeking to arbitrary oppress a section of the Australian population especially those believed to have some communist connections.Some people were citing the arbitrary ar rests on the mere basis of suspicion as the reason behind their voting against the proposed act. Reference Ward, Russel, 1983. A nation for a continent: the history of Australia, 1901-1975, Richmond, and Vic. Heinemann Educational Australia. Ann Curthoys and John Merritt, 1984. Australia’s first Cold War Society, communism and culture. 1945-1953 / Volume 1: Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Peter Love & Paul Strangio, 2001. Arguing the Cold War. Carlton North, Vic. : Red Rag Publications. Gollan, Robin, 1975.Revolutionaries and Reformists: Communism and the Australian Labour Movement, 1920-1955, Canberra: Australian National U. P. Manne, Robert, 1994. The shadow of 1917: Cold War conflict in Australia, Melbourne: Text Publishing. Rupert Lockwood, 1992. ‘Seeing Red And Darker Colours', in seeing red: the Communist Party Dissolution Act and referendum 1951: lessons for constitutional reform, Sydney: Evatt Foundation. Macintyre, Stuart, 1998. The reds, St. Leonards: Allen & Unwin. Mc Knight, David, 1994. Australia's spies and their secrets, St Leonards, N. S. W. : Allen & Unwin.

Environmental Problems in El Salvador - 1804 Words

With a total land mass of just 8,124 square miles, El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America. Like many of its’ neighboring countries, it possesses very few natural resources. Since the nation’s economy is based predominantly on agriculture, it’s no surprise that its’ citizens often experience â€Å"resource roller coasters†. In addition, its’ long history of inappropriate land tenure and ownership practices date all the way back to colonialism. Even more strikingly, â€Å"sixty percent of El Salvador’s population is expected to live in the capital by 2010.† As a result, El Salvador has to deal with continuing environmental problems. The fact that the nation lies along the Pacific Ring of fire doesn’t help either, which subjects†¦show more content†¦Despite receiving six feet of rainfall each year, most of the nation’s water is highly contaminated. In fact, thousands are killed each ye ar due to water contamination, many of whom are children. At the same time, most of the citizens of the nation cannot afford bottled water. After the twelve year civil war destroyed much of the country’s infrastructure, poor areas became even poorer. Homes and water sources had been destroyed by militia during the war. After returning home, some citizens chose to hand dig wells in order to obtain drinking water. However, many others went to their nearest stream, river or pond to collect water. These unsafe and contaminated water sources caused many people to become ill with intestinal diseases. According to Ricardo Navarro, El Salvador’s government has failed to protect its’ most precious resource: â€Å"Farmers have cut down forests that used to store rain water. Ranchers have allowed their livestock to pollute rivers. Communities have put latrines too close to shallow wells.† Others, such as Marisol Prima Ponza, who runs a government dispensary that tracks the health of 375 children in several communities, believe that things are improving. There have been fewer cases of diarrhea, she says. For example, from January to August of this year I have only recorded 17 cases. Ponza also added that these improvements are due to several projects thatShow MoreRelatedGeography : El Salvador s Geography1330 Words   |  6 PagesGeography: El Salvador s geography is very diverse, most of the land is plains and flat land but it is bordered by a chain of mountains. El Salvador is known as the Land of Volcanoes, it has frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. It is the only country in Central America that does not have a coastline on the Caribbean Sea, (National Geographic). There are about 20 active volcanoes surrounding El Salvador, it is located on The Ring of Fire. There are two mountain ranges that circle around El SalvadorRead MoreEl Salvador s Economic Freedom3038 Words   |  13 PagesEl Salvador, located in Central America between Honduras and Guatemala, gained its independence from Spain in 1821, but El Salvador has recently suffered a devastating amount of loss due to a 12-year long civil war. The civil war finally ended in 1992, but the effects of the civil war can still be felt today. El Salvador is one of the poorest developing nations in the world. According to the 2014 Index of Economic Freedom, El Salvador ranks 59th out of 186 countries based on 10 freedoms. WhenRead MoreThe Civil War On El Salvador1766 Words   |  8 PagesEl Salvador now known as the Republic of El Salvador is a small and densely populated country located in Pacific Coast of Central America. The major issue in was the coffee which was a very profitable business in El Salvador providing 95% of the country’s income. Sadly a very small percentage of population was making use out of it (around 2%).This led to the conflict between the classes. Social American Centralist party led the poor people against the government regarding this injustice. The civilRead MoreHow Nutrition Impacts Child Development Essay1135 Words   |  5 Pagesmicrosystem level. Nutrition directly deals with the child. Good nutrition has an impact on a child’s development. Inquiry Providing programs and information about nutrition will teach parents how important nutrition is for a child. One of the problems with keeping good nutrition is that agriculture is decreasing. Urbanization is rising, creating less land space, threatening water resources and causing concern for food safety. The study came up with two nutrition-sensitive programs to show theRead MoreAn Analysis of Reeboks CSR Activities1469 Words   |  6 Pagesinternal human rights problems with one of the most comprehensive CSR platforms in the industry, yet in many locations in Reeboks supply chain there are still much needed improvements. Another major factor included in the CSR movement has been an increased awareness of how industrial activities and energy use can have implications for the ecosystem. Furthermore since the human population is expanding exponentially and demanding more and more resource consumption, environmental crises will undoubtedlyRead MoreThe Effects Of Deforestation2015 Words   |  9 Pagesenvironment and is bad for not only Southeast Asia, but for El Salvador as well. In El Salvador, they rely on trees to help the grow crops, coffee, that is their biggest money grabber. The trees provide shade for growing shade coffee and they help prevent many other things as well. They help prevent erosion of the ground, flooding of that area, and environmental changes to help protect coffee production. This has been affecting El Salvador in that they are losing money with the clearing of trees.Read MoreCanadian Mining Companies Are Responsible For Numerous Environmental And Social Injustices1068 Words   |  5 Pagescompanies are making a large impact around the globe (Canadian Mining Journal, 2014). However, these impacts are not necessarily positive. Canadian mining corporations have failed to implement CSR policies and are therefore responsible for numerous environmental and social injustices in Latin America. Canadian Mining Presence in Latin America Latin America’s vast resources have attracted foreign interests for centuries. From European colonialists during the age of imperialism to the multinational companiesRead MoreModern Theory : Modern Attachment Theory Essay2241 Words   |  9 Pagesdue to her physically abusive and alcoholic husband. According to Cozolino (2014b) intrauterine stress causes the newborn to have problems with emotional dysregulation, anxiety, depression and attachment difficulties, which is the case for Maya. It can be speculated that her mother might have also been depressed after giving birth to her daughter due to the environmental stresses she was experiencing (e.g., domestic violence, poverty, lack of proper housing etc.), which might have caused her motherRead MoreNatural Disasters And Uncontrolled Water Distribution1936 Words   |  8 PagesWater. It makes up 75% of our Earth, and is the determining factor of our lives. Without it, we would be lost. Recently, our world has faced droughts, natural disasters and uncontrolled water distribution. With these major changes come major problems. Government control and water shortages are just a few of the major issues that come with these droughts. That is why we must make water rights as equal as human rights. If water was taken as seriously as human rights are than we would avoid some otherRead MoreAdvantages Disadvantages of International Trade869 Words   |  4 Pageshas benefits, it also presents a problem. Such trade can cause countries to be prosperous for a short time, but leads to economic exploitation, loss of cultural identity, and even physical harm. Support of Non-Democratic Systems Great hardship can be caused when people make poor decisions about land use or surplus production for export and do not take the general population’s welfare into consideration. For example: Landowners in Nicaragua and El Salvador want farmers to grow coffee beans

The Feminist Movement The Yellow Wallpaper And I Stand...

The women of America have been fighting for equality for generations. Today, more men and women alike are participation in the feminist movement than ever before. Activists are still fighting to close the wage gap and end unrealistic societal expectations, among combating many other issues that the female population still faces. Though the fight is not over yet, society has come a long way. The feminist movement first sparked in the late 1840’s. Women such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton served as trailblazers for the Women’s Suffrage movement. The early suffragettes set the stage for many more changes to come for American society (â€Å"United States Suffrage†). Among the women who did their part to gain equality were Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Tillie Olsen, authors of the short stories â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† and â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing.† These works both act as semi-autobiographical documentations of the effects of patriar chal society on women’s mental, emotional and physical health. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† and â€Å"I Stand Here Ironing† were written more than sixty years apart, but in what ways do they relate? The narrators of both of these stories come from very different backgrounds, but despite their differing circumstances, they are both familiar with the oppression and hardship that women have faced throughout history. In order to first understand the connections between the two pieces of literature, it is necessary to know more about the women behind them.

State University s Concrete Canoe Team - 1475 Words

During my first semester of college, I learned a lot of information, including the existence of Fairmont State University’s Concrete Canoe Team. The first time I heard about it was during my freshman course, Light Construction. Light Construction’s Professor’s, Tabitha Lafferre, first discussion included discussing how important extracurricular activities are and recommended any Civil Engineering Technology majors to look into Fairmont State’s Concrete Canoe Team due to their many accomplishments and successful reputation. Professor Lafferre held a class meeting where members of the Concrete Canoe Team came and spoke to us about the organization. There are currently twenty-one students on the team, only four of which are girls. Even†¦show more content†¦The most recent article I found was published on Wednesday, June 15, 2016, titled â€Å"FSU Concrete Canoe Team Places 12th in the Nation†. Just seeing the title peaked my interest and afte r reading the article I learned that during the team’s thirteenth trip to the ASCE National Concrete Canoe Competition on June 11, 2016, (at the University of Texas in Tyler, Texas) they tied their best ranking of twelfth in the nation. They also placed ninth in the women’s sprints which broke a record for their best placement in the competition. After further investigation, I learned that the ASCE organization and Concrete Canoe Team’s current goal is to break the longest overall consecutive national appearances record ever held by a team. The current record is fifteen consecutive appearances. Fairmont State University’s Concrete Canoe Team placed eighth overall for final product and display, tenth for their oral presentation, fourteenth for their technical paper, ninth for the women’s sprint, as mentioned earlier, and eighth for the men’s sprint. The Fairmont State University student ASCE chapter was also the runner up for the Ridgeway Awa rd, the top student chapter international award. Professor Como, former president of Fairmont State University’s ASCE student chapter, stated in the article â€Å"Fairmont State University remains the only college or university in the state to qualify for the national competition. OurShow MoreRelatedHistory of Educational Technology2929 Words   |  12 Pageslearners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext. Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interactionRead MoreHistory of Educational Technology2941 Words   |  12 Pageslearners could explore and build), simulations (computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems) and hypertext. Digitized communication and networking in education started in the mid 80s and became popular by the mid-90s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), eMail and Forums. There is a difference between two major forms of online learning. The earlier type, based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer-based learning (CBL), focused on the interactionRead MoreBig five Personality Traits7561 Words   |  31 Pagestraits in personality without overlapping. During studies, the Big Five personality traits show consistency in interviews, self-descriptions, and when observed.[2]  Acronyms commonly used to refer to the five traits collectively are OCEAN, NEOAC, or CANOE. Beneath each factor, a cluster of correlated specific traits is found; for example, extraversion includes such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.[3] Contents  Ã‚  [hide]

Ray Bradbury Biography Essay Example For Students

Ray Bradbury Biography Essay Ray Bradbury BiographyU.S. author, born in Waukegan, Ill., on Aug. 22, 1920. In his stories, Bradbury wove together the intrigue of changing technology with insightful social commentary. One of his best-known works was The Martian Chronicles; a collection of interrelated stories concerning colonization of the planet Mars those attracted readers both young and old. In it, Bradbury portrayed the strengths and weaknesses of human beings as they encountered a new world. Ray Bradbury grew up in Waukegan and in Los Angeles, where he founded a magazine called Futuria Fantasia while in high school. He sold his first short story when he was 21 years old. His early stories were published in pulp magazines, but Bradbury later published stories in such mainstream magazines as The New Yorker, Mademoiselle, and the Saturday Evening Post. His science fiction and fantasy short-story collections included The Martian Chronicles, The Illustrated Man, and Dinosaur Tales. Bradburys 1980 collection, The Stories of Ray Bradbury, covers a wide range of topics, none of which is truly science fiction. His novels included Fahrenheit 451, Dandelion Wine, and Something Wicked This Way Comes. Fahrenheit 451 was made into a motion picture in 1966, and The Martian Chronicles later appeared both as a motion picture and a television miniseries. In 1954 Bradbury was honored with an award from the National Institute of Arts and Letters for his contribution to American literature. In 1956 he collaborated with John Huston to create the screenplay for Moby Dick. In addition to fiction Bradbury wrote Zen and the Art of Writing and also published such dramas as The Anthem Sprinters, The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit, The Pedestrian, and volumes of poetry including When Elephants Last in the Dooryard Bloomed, Where Robot Mice Robot Men Run Around in Robot Towns, and The Haunted Computer and the Android Pope. Bradburys short film Icarus Montgolfier Wright was nominated for an Academy award in 1963. Bradbury also wrote for television, including eight episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents. His work was represented in hundreds of anthologies of poetry, science fiction, short stories, and American literature. Bradbury received critical praise for the precision and creativity of his writing and for the freshness of his imagery. Science fiction.

Ovarian Cancer Essay Summary Example For Students

Ovarian Cancer Essay Summary Of all gynecologic malignancies, ovarian cancer continues to have thehighest mortality and is the most difficult to diagnose. In the United Statesfemale population, ovarian cancer ranks fifth in absolute mortality among cancer related deaths (13,000/yr). In most reported cases, ovarian cancer, when first diagnosed is in stages III or IV in about 60 to 70% of patients which further complicates treatment of the disease (Barber, 3).Early detection in ovarian cancer is hampered by the lack of appropriate tumor markers and clinically, most patients fail to develop significantsymptoms until they reach advanced stage disease. The characteristics of ovarian cancer have been studied in primary tumors and in established ovarian tumor cell lines which provide a reproducible source of tumor material. Among the major clinical problems of ovarian cancer, malignant progression,rapid emergence of drug resistance, and associated cross-resistance remain unresolved. Ovarian cancer has a high frequency of metastasis yet generally remains localized within the peritoneal cavity. Tumor development has beenassociated with aberrant, dysfunctional expression and/or mutation ofvarious genes. This can include oncogene overexpression, amplification or mutation, aberrant tumor suppressor expression or mutation. Also, subversion of host antitumor immune responses may play a role in the pathogenesis of cancer (Sharp, 77). Ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma was first described by Peham in 1899 ashypernephroma of the ovary because of its resemblance to renal cell carcinoma. By 1939, Schiller noted a histologic similarity to mesonephric tubules andclassified these tumors as mesonephromas.In 1944, Saphir and Lackner described two cases of hypernephroid carcinoma of the ovary and proposed clear celladenocarcinoma as an alternative term. Clear cell tumors of the ovary are now generally considered to be of mullerian and in the genital tract of mullerian origin. A number of examples of clear cell aden ocarcinoma have been reported to arise from the epithelium of an endometriotic cyst (Yoonessi, 289). Occasionally, a renal cell carcinoma metastasizes to the ovary and may be confused with a primary clear cell adenocarcinoma.Ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma (OCCA) has been recognized as a distincthistologic entity in the World Health Organization (WHO) classification of ovariantumors since 1973 and is the most lethal ovarian neoplasm with an overall five yearsurvival of only 34% (Kennedy, 342). Clear cell adenocarcinoma, like most ovariancancers, originates from the ovarian epithelium which is a single layer of cells found onthe surface of the ovary.Patients with ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma are typicallyabove the age of 30 with a median of 54 which is similar to that of ovarian epithelialcancer in general. OCCA represents approximately 6% of ovarian cancers and bilateralovarian involvement occurs in less that 50% of patients even in advanced cases. The association of OCCA and endometriosis is well documented (De La Cuesta,243). This was confirmed by Kennedy et al who encountered histologic or intraoperative evidence of endometriosis in 45% of their study patients. Transformationfrom endometriosis to clear cell adenocarcinoma has been previously demonstrated insporadic cases but was not observed by Kennedy et al. Hypercalcemia occurs in asignificant percentage of patients with OCCA. Patients with advanced disease are moretypically affected than patients with nonmetastatic disease. Patients with OCCA are alsomore likely to have Stage I disease than are patients with ovarian epithelial cancer ingeneral (Kennedy, 348). Histologic grade has been useful as an initial prognostic determinant in some studiesof epithelial cancers of the ovary. The grading of ovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma hasbeen problematic and is complicated by the multiplicity of histologic patterns found inthe same tumor. Similar problems have been found in attempted grading of clear celladenocarcinoma of the endometrium (Disaia, 176). Despite these problems, tumorgrading has been attempted but has failed to demonstrate prognostic significance. However, collected data suggest that low mitotic activity and a predominance of clearcells may be favorable histologic features (Piver, 136). Risk factors for OCCA and ovarian cancer in general are much less clear than forother genital tumors with general agreement on two risk factors: nulliparity and familyhistory. There is a higher frequency of carcinoma in unmarried women and in marriedwomen with low parity. Gonadal dysgenesis in children is associated with a higher riskof developing ovarian cancer while oral contraceptives are associated with a decreasedrisk. Genetic and candidate host genes may be altered in susceptible families. Amongthose currently under investigation is BRCA1 which has been associated with anincreased susceptibility to breast cancer. Approximately 30% of ovarian adenocarcinomas express high levels of HER-2/neu oncogene which correlates with a poor prognosis (Altcheck, 375-376). Mutations in host tumor suppresser gene p53 are found in 50% of ovarian carcinomas. There also appears to be a racial predilection, as the vast majority of cases are seen in Caucasians (Yoonessi, 295). Considerable variation exists in the gross appearance of ovarian clear celladenocarcinomas and they are generally indistinguishable from other epithelial ovariancarcinomas. They could be cystic, solid, soft, or rubbery, and may also containhemorrhagic and mucinous areas (ODonnell, 250). Microscopically, clear cellcarcinomas are characterized by the presence of variable proportions of clear and hobnailcells. The former contain abundant clear cytoplasm with often centrally located nuclei,while the latter show clear or pink cytoplasm and bizarre basal nuclei with atypicalcytoplasmic intraluminal projections. The cellular arrangement may be tubulo acinar,papillary, or solid, with the great majority displaying a mixture of these patterns. Thehobnail and clear cells predominate with tubular and solid forms, respectively (Barber,214). Clear cell adenocarcinoma tissue fixed with alcohol shows a high cytoplasmicglycogen content which can be shown by means of special staining techniques. Abundant extracellular and rare intracellular neutral mucin mixed with sulfate andcarboxyl group is usually present. The clear cells are recognized histochemically andultrastructurally (short and blunt microvilli, intercellular tight junctions and desmosomes,free ribosomes, and lamellar endoplasmic reticulum). The ultrastructure of hobnail andclear cells resemble those of the similar cells seen in clear cell carcinomas of theremainder of the female genital tract (OBrien, 254). A variation in patterns of histologyis seen among these tumors and frequently within the same one. Whether both tubular components with hobnail cells and the solid part with clear cellsare required to establish a diagnosis or the presence of just one of the patterns issufficient has not been clearly established. Fortunately, most tumors exhibit a mixture ofthese components. Benign and borderline counterparts of clear cell ovarianadenocarcinomas are theoretical possibilities. Yoonessi et al reported that nodalmetastases could be found even when the disease appears to be grossly limited to thepelvis (Yoonessi, 296). Examination of retroperitoneal nodes is essential to allow formore factual staging and carefully planned adjuvant therapy. Surgery remains the backbone of treatment and generally consists of removal of theuterus, tubes and ovaries, possible partial omentectomy, and nodal biopsies. Theeffectiveness and value of adjuvant radiotherapy and chemotherapy has not been clearlydemonstrated. Therefore, in patients with unilateral encapsulated lesions andhistologically proven uninvolvement of the contralateral ovary, omentum, and biopsiednodes, a case can be made for (a)no adjuvant therapy after complete surgical removaland (b) removal of only the diseased ovary in an occasional patient who may be youngand desirous of preserving her reproductive capacity (Altchek, 97). In the more adv-anced stages, removal of the uterus, ovaries, omentum, and as much tumor as possiblefollowed by pelvic radiotherapy (if residual disease is limited to the pelvis) orchemotherapy must be considered. The chemotherapeutic regimens generally involveadriamycin, alkylating agents, and cisPlatinum containing combinations (Barber, 442). OCCA is of epithelial origin and often contains mixtures of other epithelial tumorssuch as serous, mucinous, and endometrioid. Clear cell adenocarcinoma is characterizedby large epithelial cells with abundant cytoplasm. Because these tumors sometimesoccur in association with endometriosis or endometrioid carcinoma of the ovary andresemble clear cell carcinoma of the endometrium, they are now thought to be ofmullerian duct origin and variants of endometrioid adenocarcinoma. Clear cell tumors ofthe ovary can be predominantly solid or cystic. In the solid neoplasm, the clear cells arearranged in sheets or tubules. In the cystic form, the neoplastic cells line the spaces. Five-year survival is approximately 50% when these tumors are confined to the ovaries,but these tumors tend to be aggressive and spread beyond the ovary which tends to make5-year survival highly unlikely (Altchek, 416). Some debate continues as to whether clear cell or mesonephroid carcinoma is aseparate clinicopathological entity with its own distinctive biologic behavior and naturalhistory or a histologic variant of endometrioid carcinoma. In an effort to characterizeclear cell adenocarcinoma, Jenison et al compared these tumors to the most common ofthe epithelial malignancies, the serous adenocarcinoma (SA). Histologically determinedendometriosis was strikingly more common among patients with OCCA than with SA. Other observations by Jenison et al suggest that the biologic behavior of clear celladenocarcinoma differs from that of SA. They found Stage I tumors in 50% of theobserved patient population as well as a lower incidence of bilaterality in OCCA(Jenison, 67-69). Additionally, it appears that OCCA is characteristically larger thanSA, possibly explaining the greater frequency of symptoms and signs at presentation. Risk FactorsThere is controversy regarding talc use causing ovarian cancer. Unt il recently, mosttalc powders were contaminated with asbestos. Conceptually, talcum powder on theperineum could reach the ovaries by absorption through the cervix or vagina. Sincetalcum powders are no longer contaminated with asbestos, the risk is probably no longerimportant (Barber, 200). The high fat content of whole milk, butter, and meat productshas been implicated with an increased risk for ovarian cancer in general. The Centers for Disease Control compared 546 women with ovarian cancer to 4,228controls and reported that for women 20 to 54 years of age, the use of oralcontraceptives reduced the risk of ovarian cancer by 40% and the risk of ovarian cancerdecreased as the duration of oral contraceptive use increased. Even the use of oralcontraceptives for three months decreased the risk. The protective effect of oralcontraceptives is to reduce the relative risk to 0.6 or to decrease the incidence of diseaseby 40%. There is a decreased risk as high as 40% for women who have had fo ur ormore children as compared to nulliparous women. There is an increase in the incidenceof ovarian cancer among nulliparous women and a decrease with increasing parity. Theincessant ovulation theory proposes that continuous ovulation causes repeated traumato the ovary leading to the development of ovarian cancer. Incidentally, having two ormore abortions compared to never having had an abortion decreases ones risk ofdeveloping ovarian cancer by 30% (Coppleson, 25-28). Consequences Of The Black Death EssayCurrently there are several serum markers that are available to help make a diagnosis. These include CA 125, CEA, DNB/70K, LASA-P, and serum inhibin. Recently theurinary gonadotropin peptide (UCP) and the collagen-stimulating factor have beenadded. Although the tumor markers have a low specificity and sensitivity, they are oftenused in screening for ovarian cancer. A new tumor marker CA125-2 has greaterspecificity than CA125. In general, tumor markers have a very limited role in screeningfor ovarian cancer. The common epithelial cancer of the ovary is unique in killing the patient while being,in the vast majority of the cases, enclosed in the anatomical area where it initiallydeveloped: the peritoneal cavity. Even with early localized cancer, lymph nodemetastases are not rare in the pelvic or aortic areas. In most of the cases, death is due tointraperitoneal proliferation, ascites, protein loss and cachexia. The concept ofdebulking or cytoreduct ive surgery is currently the dominant concept in treatment. The first goal in debulking surgery is inhibition of debulking surgery is inhibition ofthe vicious cycle of malnutrition, nausea, vomiting, and dyspepsia commonly found inpatients with mid to advanced stage disease. Cytoreductive surgery enhances theefficiency of chemotherapy as the survival curve of the patients whose largest residualmass size was, after surgery, below the 1.5 cm limit is the same as the curve of thepatients whose largest metastatic lesions were below the 1.5 cm limit at the outset(Altchek, 422-424). The aggressiveness of the debulking surgery is a key question surgeons must facewhen treating ovarian cancers. The debulking of very large metastatic masses makes nosense from the oncologic perspective. As for extrapelvic masses the debulking, even ifmore acceptable, remains full of danger and exposes the patient to a heavy handicap. For these reasons the extra-genital resections have to be limited to lymphadenectomy,omentectomy, pelvic abdominal peritoneal resections and rectosigmoid junctionresection. That means that stages IIB and IIC and stages IIIA and IIB are the only trueindications for extrapelvic cytoreductive surgery. Colectomy, ileectomy, splenectomy,segmental hepatectomy are only exceptionally indicated if they allow one to perform areal optimal resection. The standard cytoreductive surgery is the total hysterectomy withbilateral salpingoophorectomy. This surgery may be done with aortic and pelvic lymphnode sampling, omentectomy, and, if necessary, resection of the rectos igmoidal junction(Barber. 182-183). The concept of administering drugs directly into the peritoneal cavity as therapy ofovarian cancer was attempted more than three decades ago. However, it has only beenwithin the last ten years that a firm basis for this method of drug delivery has becomeestablished. The essential goal is to expose the tumor to higher concentrations of drugfor longer periods of time than is possible with systemic drug delivery. Several agentshave been examined for their efficacy, safety and pharmacokinetic advantage whenadministered via the peritoneal route. Cisplatin has undergone the most extensive evaluation for regional delivery. Cisplatinreaches the systemic compartment in significant concentrations when it is administeredintraperitoneally. The dose limiting toxicity of intraperitoneally administered cisplatin isnephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity and emesis. The depth of penetration of cisplatin into theperitoneal lining and tumor following regional delivery is only 1 to 2 mm from thesurface which lim its its efficacy. Thus, the only patients with ovarian cancer who wouldlikely benefit would be those with very small residual tumor volumes. Overall,approximately 30 to 40% of patients with small volume residual ovarian cancer havebeen shown to demonstrate an objective clinical response to cisplatin-based locallyadministered therapy with 20 to 30% of patients achieving a surgically documentedcomplete response. As a general rule, patients whose tumors have demonstrated aninherent resistance to cisplatin following systemic therapy are not considered fortreatment with platinum-based intraperitoneal therapy (Altchek, 444-446). In patients with small volume residual disease at the time of second look laparotomy,who have demonstrated inherent resistance to platinum-based regimens, alternativeintraperitoneal treatment programs can be considered. Other agents includemitoxantrone, and recombinant alpha-interpheron. Intraperitoneal mitoxanthone hasbeen shown to have definite activity in small volume residual platinum-refractory ovariancancer. Unfortunately, the dose limiting toxicity of the agent is abdominal pain andadhesion formation, possibly leading to bowel obstruction. Recent data suggests thelocal toxicity of mitoxanthone can be decreased considerably by delivering the agent inmicrodoses. Ovarian tumors may have either intrinsic or acquired drug resistance. Manymechanisms of drug resistance have been described. Expression of the MDR1 gene thatencodes the drug efflux protein known as p-glycoprotein, has been shown to confer thecharacteristic multi-drug resistance to clones of some cancers. The most widelyc onsidered definition of platinum response is response to first-line platinum treatmentand disease free interval. Primary platinum resistance may be defined as any progressionon treatment. Secondary platinum resistance is the absence of progression on primaryplatinum-based therapy but progression at the time of platinum retreatment for relapse(Sharp, 205-207). Second-line chemotherapy for recurrent ovarian cancer is dependent on preferences ofboth the patient and physician. Retreatment with platinum therapy appears to offersignificant opportunity for clinical response and palliation but relatively little hope forlong-term cure. Paclitaxel (trade name: Taxol), a prototype of the taxanes, is cytotoxicto ovarian cancer. Approximately 20% of platinum failures respond to standard doses ofpaclitaxel. Studies are in progress of dose intensification and intraperitonealadministration (Barber, 227-228). This class of drugs is now thought to represent anactive addition to the platinum analogs, either as primary therapy, in combination withplatinum, or as salvage therapy after failure of platinum. In advanced stages, there is suggestive evidence of partial responsiveness of OCCA toradiation as well as cchemotherapy, adriamycin, cytoxan, and cisPlatinum-containingcombinations (Yoonessi, 295). Radiation techniques include intraperitoneal radioactivegold or chromium phosphate and external beam therapy to the abdomen and pelvis. Therole of radiation therapy in treatment of ovarian canver has diminished in prominence asthe spread pattern of ovarian cancer and the normal tissue bed involved in the treatmentof this neoplasm make effective radiation therapy difficult. When the residual diseaseafter laparotomy is bulky, radiation therapy is particularly ineffective. If postoperativeradiation is prescribed for a patient, it is important that theentire abdomen and pelvis areoptimally treated to elicit a response from the tumor (Sharp, 278-280). In the last few decades, the aggressive attempt to optimize the treatment ofovarian clear cell adenocarcinoma and ovarian cancer in general has seen remarkableimprovements in the response rates of patients with advanced stage cancer withoutdramatically improving long-term survival. The promises of new drugs with activitywhen platinum agents fail is encouraging and fosters hope that, in the decades to come,the endeavors of surgical and pharmacoogical research will make ovarian cancer aneasily treatable disease. BibliographyAltchek, A., ; Deligdisch, L. (1996). Diagnosis and Management of Ovarian Disorders. New York: Igaku Shoin. Barber, H. (1993). Ovarian Carcinoma: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment. 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Clear cell epithelial ovarian cancer: Badprognosis only in early stages. Gynecologic Oncology, 49, 250-254. ODonnell, M, ; Al-Nafussi, A. (1995). Intracytoplasmic lumina and mucinous inclusionsin ovarian carcinoma. Histopathology, 26, 181-184. Piver, S. (Ed.). (1987). Ovarian Malignancies. New York: Churchill Livingstone. Sharp, F., Mason, P., Blackett, T., ; Berek, J. (1995). Ovarian Cancer 3. New York: Chapman ; Hall Medical. Yamada, K., ; Kiyoshi, O. (1995). Monoclonal antibody, Mab 12C3, is a sensitiveimmunohistochemical marker of early malignant change in epithelial ovarian tumors. Anatomic Pathology, 103, 288-294. Yoonessi, M., Weldon, D., ; Sateesh, S. (1984). Clear cell ovarian carcinoma. Journalof Surgical Oncology, 27, 289-297.